Ab
abbreviation for antibody.
Abiotic
arising from non-living organisms.
Abscisic acid
a phytohormone implicated in the control of many plant responses to abiotic stress, such as extent of stomatal opening under water deficit (i.e. drought) conditions.
Acclimatization
the adaptation of a living organism (plant, animal or micro-organism) to a changed environment that subjects it to physiological stress.
Adenine
(Abbreviation: A). One the bases found in DNA and RNA
Adjuvant
a pharmacological agent added to a drug to enhance its effect.
Adventitious
A structure arising at sites other than the usual ones, e.g. shoots from roots or leaves, and embryos from any cell other than a zygote.
Adventitious presence
the unintended presence of genetic material or whole seeds from another variety, crop, or weed, in a seed or grain shipment.
Aflatoxins
a group of toxic compounds, produced by Aspergillus flavus, that bind to DNA and prevent replication and transcription. Aflatoxins can cause acute liver damage and cancer. A health hazard in certain stored foods or feed.
Agrobacterium rhizogenes
a bacterium that causes hairy root disease in some plants. Similar to the crown gall disease caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, this is achieved by the mobilization of the bacterial Ri plasmid with the transfer to the plant of some of the genetic material from the plasmid. This process has been used to insert foreign genes into plant cells, but to a lesser extent than the Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation system, because regeneration of whole plants from hairy root cultures is problematical.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
a bacterium used in the process of creating genetically modified plants.
Allele
one of two or more copies of a gene in plants or animals.
Allergen
something that causes an allergy.
Allergy
an excessively sensitive state involving the immune system as a result of exposure to certain substances, usually proteins.
Amino acid
a compound containing both amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups. In particular, any of 20 basic building blocks of proteins having the formula NH2-CR-COOH, where R is different for each specific amino acid.
Anadromous
fish that return from oceans to fresh water to spawn (e.g. salmon).
Anaphylaxis
an acute, severe, sometimes fatal allergic reaction affecting two or more body systems.
Angiosperm
a division of the plant kingdom that includes all flowering plants, i.e. vascular plants in which double fertilization occurs resulting in development of fruit containing seeds. Divided into two major groups, monocotyledons and dicotyledons
Antibiotic resistance markers
see selectable marker gene.
Antibody
neutralizing proteins generated in reaction to foreign proteins in the blood and that produce immunity against certain microorganisms or their toxins.
Antigen
a substance which when introduced into the body is capable of inducing specific immune responses, including antibody formation, or immunity against disease.
Antinutrient
an undesirable substance in food that can inhibit nutrient metabolism or absorption.
Arabidopsis
small plant of the mustard family commonly used to study plant genetics and plant genomics.
Artificial seed
encapsulated or coated somatic embryos that are planted and treated like seed.
Auxin
a group of plant growth regulators (natural or synthetic) which stimulate cell division, enlargement, apical dominance, root initiation, and flowering.
Base pair
two bases that form a “rung of the DNA ladder.” A DNA strand consists of a chain of nucleotides, each of which is made of a molecule of sugar, a molecule of phosphoric acid and a molecule called a base. The four bases used in DNA (A,T, G and C) are the “l
Biodiversity
the number and types of organisms in a region or environment.
Biological invasion
the introduction of an organism into a new environment or geographical region followed by rapid multiplication and spread.
Biotechnology
a set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and product development. In particular, the use of recombinant DNA techniques.
Biotic
relating to life or specific life conditions.
Broodstock
the group of males and females from which fish are bred for aquaculture.
Bt, Bacillus thuringiensis
a soil bacterium that produces toxins that are deadly to some insects.
Bt crops are genetically engineered to carry the gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The bacteria produces a protein that is toxic when ingested by certain Lepidopteran insects. Crops containing the Bt gene are able to produce this toxin, thereby providing protection throughout the entire plant.
Bt cotton is genetically engineered to control tobacco budworms, bollworms, and pink bollworms.
Bt corn is genetically engineered to provide protection against the European corn borer.
Carrying capacity
the maximum number of organisms of a given species that can be supported in a given area or habitat.
Cell is the smallest structural unit of living organisms that is able to grow and reproduce independently.
Cross-compatible
the ability of two related organisms to exchange genes through sexual reproduction.
Cellularity
characterizes the physical and chemical properties of cells found within a specific tissue.
Cellulolytic
the capacity to digest the components of plant tissues and fibers used in making paper and textiles.
Chimera
an organism containing two or more genetically distinct cell or tissue types.
Chromatography
a technique for separating complex mixtures of chemicals or proteins into their various constituents.
Chromosome
a threadlike strand of DNA and associated proteins that is in the nucleus of a cell.
Clone
one that is an exact replica of another, i.e. organisms asexually derived by division from a single cell.
Confined field trial
field trial carried out with specific restrictions on location, plot size, etc.
Congeneric
belonging to the same generation.
Conspecific
belonging to the same species.
Cry
designation of a gene encoding insecticidal crystal proteins in the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.
Delta-endotoxins
Bt insecticidal proteins.
Developmental asynchrony
a pattern of development within sub-populations that allows different sub-populations to reach sexual maturity at different times.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
the molecule that encodes genetic information.
DNA sequence
the specific order of bases in a DNA molecule, whether in a fragment of DNA, a gene, a chromosome or an entire genome.
Dormancy
a delay in the growth of viable seeds because of unfavorable environmental conditions.
Eclosion
the emergence of an insect larva from the egg.
Ecological amplitude
the range of environmental conditions in which an organism can survive and reproduce.
Elasticity
refers to the case where one economic variable causes a change in another (e.g. price and quantity demanded). In general, elasticity measures the responsiveness of one economic variable to a change in another. It is unit-free and always expressed in percentage terms.
Expression (as in gene expression)
generation of a messenger RNA (mRNA) copy of a gene encoded in an organism’s DNA.
Epiphytic
one organism living within or upon another without causing harm.
Epistatic
a dependent relationship between genes.
Epitopes
separate antigenic areas within a given protein.
Erucic acid
a fatty acid having 22 carbons and one double bond that is common to traditional rapeseed oil. Canola oil contains less than 2 percent erucic acid.
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
a bacterium found in the intestine of animals and humans used extensively in genetic engineering. E. coli can be fatal to humans if undercooked meat is digested.
Exotic
non-native; refers to an organism that has been introduced into an area.
Fibroblasts
irregularly shaped, branching cells distributed throughout vertebrate connective tissue.
Field trial
tests of the ability of a new crop variety to perform under normal cultivation conditions.
Fitness
the genetic contribution of an individual to the next generation.
Flow cytometry
a technique for rapid automatic separation of suspensions of living cells into defined sub-populations.
Gamete
the products of cells divided in sexually reproducing organisms.
Gene
the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity.
Gene construct
a sequence of genes made by splicing several genes together.
Gene flow
the movement of genes from one population to another.
Gene gun
a device for propelling DNA molecules into living cells.
Gene knockout strategy
an approach used to determine the function of a specific gene by inactivating (knocking out) that gene in the intact organism and studying the consequences of this modification.
Gene product
proteins resulting from the transcription of a gene.
Gene stacking
the process of inserting two or more different genes into an organism.
Genetic drift
the random change in gene frequencies in populations.
Genome
the master blueprint for the total set of an organism’s genes.
Genomics
the study of genomes.
Genotype
the hereditary constitution of an organism.
Germplasm
hereditary material.
Genetic engineering, very broadly, is a technique used to alter or move genetic material (genes) of living cells. In the United States, under guidelines issued by USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, genetic engineering is defined as the genetic modification of organisms by recombinant DNA techniques.
Gill irrigation
oxygen transfer from water to the blood in fish.
Glycoalkaloids
toxic secondary organic compounds found in the potato family.
Glycolysis
the process by which sugars are converted to acids.
Heat-labile
easily destroyed by heat.
Herbicide-tolerant crops were developed to survive certain herbicides that previously would have destroyed the crop along with the targeted weeds, and allow farmers to use them as postemergent herbicides, providing an effective weed control. The most common herbicide-tolerant crops (cotton, corn, soybeans, and canola) are Roundup Ready (RR) crops resistant to glyphosate, a herbicide effective on many species of grasses, broadleaf weeds, and sedges. Other genetically modified herbicide-tolerant crops include Liberty Link (LL) corn resistant to glufosinate-ammonium, and BXN cotton resistant to bromoxynil.
Heterozygous
having two different genes at a given location on the chromosome map.
Homology
structural similarity due to descent from a common ancestor or form.
Hybrid
the offspring produced by breeding plants or animals of different varieties, species or races.
Immunoglobulin (Ig)
see antibody.
Immunoglobulin E (Ig E)
an antibody produced by an allergen which has specific structural and biological properties.
In utero
within the uterus.
In vitro
outside the living body; in a laboratory or test tube.
In vivo
within the living body.
Intellectual property (IP)
the legal rights associated with inventions, artistic expressions and other products of the imagination (e.g. patent, copyright and trade-mark law.)
Introgression
movement of a new gene into a population.
Irradiation
a process involving the use of low levels of radiation to reduce the presence of disease causing agents, for example during the processing of food products.
Juvenility
Early phase of development in which an organism is incapable of sexual reproduction.
Kinin
A substance promoting cell division. In plant systems, the prefix cyto- has been added (cytokinin) to distinguish it from kinin in animal systems.
Landrace
In plant genetic resources, an early, cultivated form of a crop species, evolved from a wild population, and generally composed of a heterogeneous mixture of genotypes.
Leptokurtic
a normal statistical curve that is quite steep or sharp.
Lipogenesis
the conversion of carbohydrates and organic acids to fat.
Living modified organism (Abbreviation: LMO).
"Living organism that possess a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology" (Convention on Biological Diversity).
Marker
An identifiable DNA sequence that is inherited in Mendelian fashion, and which facilitates the study of inheritance of a trait or a linked gene.
Mass spectrometry
a technique for determining the composition of a molecule and its fragments.
Mating system
the mode of transmission of genes from one generation to the next through sexual reproduction.
Meiosis
cell division by which eggs and sperm are produced.
Methanogenesis
the process of creating methane gas during metabolism.
Mitosis
the process by which the equal partitioning of replicated chromosomes into two identical groups takes place.
Molecular genetics
the study of the expression, regulation and inheritance of genes at the level of DNA and its transcription products.
Monoclonal antibody (Abbreviation: mAb).
an antibody, produced by a hybridoma, directed against a single antigenic determinant of an antigen.
Mutagenesis
the process of changing the DNA base sequence at a specific site.
Mycorrhizae
a group of fungi that grow in close association with plant roots.
Nitrogen fixation
the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas to oxidized forms that can be assimilated by plants, particularly by blue-green algae and some genera of bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium spp.; Azotobacter spp.). An important source of nitrogen in unfertilized soils.
Nutrient cycle
the passage of a nutrient or element through an ecosystem, including its assimilation and release by various organisms and its transformation into various organic or inorganic chemical forms.
Nutrient deficiency
absence or insufficiency of an essential factor for normal growth and development.
Nutrient film technique (Abbreviation: NFT).
a hydroponic technique used to grow plants. NFT delivers a thin film of water or nutrient solution either continuously or through on-off cycles.
Nutrient gradient
a diffusion gradient of nutrients and gases that develops in tissues where only a portion of the tissue is in contact with the medium. Gradients are less likely to form in liquid media than in callus cultures.
Nutrient medium
a solid, semi-solid or liquid formulation for in vitro cell or tissue growth.
Ontogenetic delay
a delay in the course of growth and development to maturity.
Ontogeny
the course of growth and development of an individual to maturity.
Open pollination
Pollination by wind, insects or other natural mechanisms.
Operons
gene clusters under common control in bacteria.
Organoleptic
the taste and aroma properties of a food or chemical.
Outcrossing
mating between different individuals/species.
Phage
a virus specifically attacking bacteria.
Phenotype
the genetically and environmentally determined appearance of an organism.
Plant breeding is use of techniques involving crossing plants to produce varieties with particular characteristics (traits), which are carried in the genes of the plants and passed on to future plant generations.
Plant breeders' rights (Abbreviation: PBR).
legal protection of a new plant variety granted to the breeder or his successor in title. The effect of PBR is that prior authorization is required before the material can be used for commercial purposes.
Plant cell culture
in vitro growth of plant cells.
Plant cell immobilization
entrapment of plant cells in gel matrices so that they are protected from physical damage. The cells are suspended in liquified droplets which are then allowed to harden. Commonly used matrices are alginates, agar or polyacrylamide.
Plant genetic resources (Abbreviation: PGR).
the reproductive or vegetative propagating material of: 1. cultivated varieties (cultivars) in current use and newly developed varieties; 2. obsolete cultivars; 3. primitive cultivars (landraces); 4. wild and weed species, near relatives of cultivated varieties; and 5. special genetic stocks (including elite and current breeder's lines and mutants).
Plant growth regulator
an organic compound, either natural or synthetic, and other than a nutrient, that modifies or controls one or more specific physiological processes within a plant.
Plant variety protection (Abbreviation: PVP).
synonym for plant breeders' rights.
Plasmids
non-chromosomal pieces of DNA that code for a sub-set of cellular functions.
Pleiotropic response
multiple changes to an organism’s appearance associated with a single change at the genetic level.
Pollination
the transfer of pollen between the male germ cell of a plant (anther), and the female reproductive system (stigma) in seed plants.
Polyphagous
herbivores that feed on a wide variety of host plants from many different families.
Precautionary principle
an approach to the management of risk when scientific knowledge is incomplete.
Prion
normal cell protein present on nerve cell membranes. It is found in most mammals, but its normal function is unclear. Abnormal prions are thought to cause certain diseases including mad cow disease.
Proteinase inhibitors
a class of proteins capable of inhibiting insect feeding.
Proteome
the complete complement of proteins made by a given species in all its tissues and stages.
Proximate analysis
chemical analysis of the main constituents of food.
Qualitative trait
a trait that shows discontinuous variation - i.e. individuals can be assigned to one of a small number of discrete classes.
Quantitative genetics
the area of genetics concerned with the inheritance of quantitative traits that show continuous variation, as opposed to qualitative traits. Since many of the critical targets in both plant and animal breeding are of this type, most practical improvement programs involve the application of quantitative genetics.
Rate-limiting enzyme
an enzyme whose activity controls the overall flow of activity through a sequence of reactions.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
DNA molecules created by splicing together two or more different pieces of DNA.
Reporter gene
a gene whose gene product is easily detected.
Restriction enzymes
DNA-cutting enzymes that recognize and bind to specific short sections of DNA sequence.
Rhizobacteria
bacteria found closely associated with plant roots.
Rhizosphere
the soil zone immediately surrounding a plant root system.
Risk communication
the interactive exchange of information and opinions throughout the risk analysis process concerning hazards and risks, risk-related factors and risk perceptions, among risk assessors, risk managers, consumers, industry, the academic community and other interested parties, including the explanation of risk assessment findings and the basis of risk management decisions.
Salmonids
members of the fish family “Salmonidae,” including salmon, trout and chars.
Secondary metabolite
a chemical produced by a plant that does not appear to have a direct role in its growth.
Secondary pests
those species within an ecosystem that are normally kept in check by natural enemies.
Seed shattering
the spontaneous dispersal of mature seed from a plant following ripening.
Selectable marker gene
a gene whose product protects the cell containing it from a toxic chemical (e.g. antibiotic), used to identify the modified cells.
Selfing
mating by a single individual containing both female and male reproductive systems.
Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
single-base variations in the genetic code between different individuals of the same species.
Somaclonal variation
altered characteristics in plant tissues by extended growth in a laboratory test tube (possibly a form of mutation).
Somatic embryo
an organized embryo-like structure. Although morphologically similar to a zygotic embryo it is initiated from somatic plant cells. Under in vitro conditions, somatic embryos go through developmental processes similar to embryos of zygotic origin. Each somatic embryo is potentially capable of developing into a normal plantlet.
Somatic hybridization
naturally occurring or induced fusion of somatic protoplasts or cells of two genetically different parents. The difference may be as wide as interspecific. Wide synthetic hybrids formed in this way (i.e. not via gametic fusion) are known as cybrids. Not all cybrids contain the full genetic information (nuclear and non-nuclear) of both parents.
Totipotency
the ability to regenerate a fully differentiated organism from a single cell.
Transcription
the synthesis of RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules concerned in translating the sequence of DNA into the structure of protein molecules.
Transgene
a gene from one organism inserted into the genome of another.
Transgenic plants result from the insertion of genetic material from another organism so that the plant will exhibit a desired trait. Recombinant DNA techniques (DNA formed by combining segments of DNA from different organisms) are usually used.
Transposons
short stretches of DNA with the capacity to move between different points within a genome.
Triploidy
three copies of genetic information in each cell rather than the normal two copies found in most plants and animals.
Unisexual
higher organisms (animals or plants) possessing either male or female reproductive organs, but not both.
Univalent
an unpaired chromosome at the first division of meiosis.
Universal donor cell
cells that, after introduction into a recipient, will not induce an immune response that leads to their rejection.
Universality
referring to the genetic code, the triplet codons are translated to the same amino acid, with minor exceptions, in virtually all species.
Variety
1. a naturally occurring subdivision of a species, with distinct morphological characters.
2. a defined strain of a crop plant, selected on the basis of phenotypic (sometimes genotypic) homogeneity.
Vector
any organism or DNA construct that enables movement or transmission of another organism or gene.
Volunteer plant
crop plants that persist for a few seasons without deliberate cultivation.
Wide cross
sexual cross between distantly related species that normally would not breed.
wilt Drooping of stems and foliage due to loss of cell turgor; may be caused by water stress or by disease.
Xanthophyll
A yellow oxygen-containing carotenoid, present in chloroplasts.
Yeast
A unicellular ascomycete fungus, commonly found as a contaminant in plant tissue culture.
Zone of elongation
The section of the young root or shoot just behind the apical meristem, in which the cells are enlarging and elongating rapidly.
